Storia del Terrore

Piatto-Terrore

16.000 vittime ghigliottinate e fucilate, di cui 2.625 a Parigi, per un totale di 35.000-40.000 morti aggiungendo le esecuzioni senza processo e le fucilazioni sommarie al fronte, e di 300.000-500.000 persone incarcerate in quanto sospette: questi i numeri di un fenomeno, il Terrore, che contraddistinse la storia della Francia negli anni 1793-94 e che macchia indelebilmente la storia della Rivoluzione francese al punto da separarla nettamente dagli “anni luminosi” iniziati con la presa della Bastiglia nel 1789.

Proprio al Terrore è dedicato questo ponderoso e riuscitissimo libro di Roberto Paura che, in 400 pagine corredate da un ottimo apparato iconografico (come da tradizione Odoya), compendia la letteratura esistente sull’argomento (anche quella non disponibile in Italia) facendo ampio ricorso a fonti e citazioni: ne risulta una ricostruzione complessa e affascinante, quasi giorno per giorno, ideale per chi ama la storia e crede ancora che nei suoi solchi si trovino molti elementi in grado di spiegare il presente. A questo proposito Paura è molto chiaro: «Se il 1789 fu il laboratorio politico del XIX secolo, il 1793 è stato senza dubbio il laboratorio politico del XX e del XXI secolo. Problemi straordinariamente moderni, dal suffragio universale al reddito minimo, dall’ateismo ai diritti sociali – il diritto al lavoro, il diritto all’istruzione –, dall’emancipazione delle donne alla conflittualità tra democrazia rappresentativa e democrazia diretta, dai rischi di un potere incontrollato fondato sulla persecuzione di quanti non ne condividono il progetto […] fino al problema ancora irrisolto dell’appannamento dei principi rivoluzionari quando si giunge al potere».

Il Terrore è la matrice degli stermini del Novecento, non solo per i massacri (la fucilazione di 4.000 vandeani scampati alla morte in battaglia, le esecuzioni di massa a cannonate a Lione, con i feriti finiti a colpi di spada e i cadaveri gettati nel Rodano affinché fungessero da monito per gli insorti di Tolone; a Nantes, Carrier fece annegare 90 preti refrattari e centinaia di persone, facendo legare insieme uomini e donne giovani per poterli affogare in quello che lui chiamava “matrimonio repubblicano”) ma anche e soprattutto per l’ossessione paranoica di un complotto controrivoluzionario, ordito dagli aristocratici per restaurare l’ancien régime con l’aiuto degli inglesi e degli austriaci, a cui era necessario rispondere con misure estreme e sommarie, anche attraverso la liquidazione rapida degli avversari politici trasformati in “nemici della nazione” (con l’ovvio contorno di frasi sanguinarie e a effetto come: «Chi critica il Comitato, non è altro che un traditore al solco del nemico», «Fra il popolo e i suoi nemici non può che regnare la mannaia», «Più la ghigliottina lavora, più la Repubblica si fa forte»). Addirittura, le città insorte venero private del loro nome: Marsiglia venne chiamata “Senza nome”, Lione “Comune liberato” e Tolone “Port-la-Montagne”, quasi per negarne l’identità in quanto anch’esse “nemiche della nazione”. Paura individua l’inizio del suo racconto nella sventata fuga del re a Varennes, che fece crollare l’illusione di una monarchia costituzionale, e quindi racconta il processo e l’esecuzione di Luigi XVI, vero e proprio spartiacque e punto di non ritorno rispetto al passato e all’illusione di riuscire a realizzazione una monarchia costituzionale; prosegue poi con il confronto tra girondini (federalisti e oligarchici) e giacobini (centralisti), il racconto della guerra interna ed esterna al Paese (con grande spazio dedicato alle battaglie), le insurrezioni, i processi politici, i complotti, le macchinazioni, lo scontro tra Robespierre e Saint-Just da una parte e Danton e Desmoulins dall’altra. Paura vuole dimostrare che il Terrore non fu una triste e imbarazzante parentesi da cancellare, bensì l’essenza stessa della Rivoluzione: esso esiste prima di Robespierre (il Comitato di salute pubblica nasce mesi prima del suo ingresso) ed è teorizzato da Danton (creatore del Tribunale rivoluzionario), secondo cui «bisogna essere terribili per impedire che lo sia il popolo».

Anzi, contrariamente alla vulgata che vede i giacobini come responsabili della grande accelerazione rivoluzionaria (le 100.000 teste invocate da Marat), nella loro lucida follia Robespierre e Saint-Just ricoprirono sempre il ruolo di grandi mediatori nei confronti della fortissima istanza che proveniva dal basso, cioè dalla città di Parigi (sanculotti e hébertisti), contro tutto quello che c’era prima, nella gestione dell’economia e della guerra; lo stesso calmiere sui prezzi, il famigerato maximum, fu estorto dalla plebe di Parigi e non sarebbe mai stato approvato dai giacobini, che erano decisamente a favore della libertà di commercio (così come erano contrari ai provvedimenti contro i negoziatori accaparratori, rei di sottrarre e occultare merci e derrate di prima necessità, fenomeno in realtà molto meno esteso di quanto la retorica estremista facevano credere). Una posizione ben diversa insomma da quella di un Fouchet che, a dispetto del suo futuro destino di ricchissimo ministro della polizia sotto Napoleone, teorizzava a Lione l’uguaglianza delle ricchezze e il livellamento dei redditi (un proclama definito da Stefan Zweig «il primo chiaro manifesto comunista dei tempi moderni»), o di un Joseph Le Bon che ad Arras fece inserire nelle liste dei sospetti tutti i ricchi: posizioni, queste, che contribuirono a esportare il radicalismo nei dipartimenti. Anche riguardo alla religione, Robespierre tenne sempre una posizione moderata, lontana dall’ateismo dei più esagitati (e ce n’erano tanti, basti pensare che Laignelot disse: «I popoli non saranno mai davvero liberi finché l’ultimo re non sarà stato strangolato con le budella dell’ultimo prete») che chiedevano la cancellazione per leggere del cristianesimo (c’era il problema dei preti da pagare con i soldi statali, e molti volevano risolvere il problema alla radice): il suo sostegno al culto dell’essere supremo si atteneva ai principi della libertà di culto e voleva evitare che si ritornasse all’oscurantismo del vecchio ordine.

La sua fu una posizione mediana che mirava continuamente a smussare gli estremismi, sia a destra che a sinistra, e a spingere la Rivoluzione verso un orizzonte che non era più solo politico, ma morale e perfino religioso, nell’utopia irrealizzabile di costruire un “uomo nuovo”, il vero cittadino repubblicano. Effettivamente, l’accentramento dei poteri e l’instancabile attività del Comitato di salute pubblica salvarono veramente la Francia nell’estate del 1793, ma poi, dopo la vittoria di Robespierre contro tutte le opposizioni, il Terrore venne pensato come regime permanente in una repubblica giacobina sempre più centralizzata: il Comitato di salute pubblica si ritrovò in possesso di un’autorità senza pari, anche a confronto con l’ancien régime e l’autorità del monarca assoluto (e così la Convenzione, teoricamente detentrice del potere assoluto sul piano legislativo ed esecutivo, aveva meno autorità dei parlamenti francesi del vecchio regime). Non poteva durare, ma Robespierre aveva già previsto che al suo Terrore virtuoso si sarebbero sostituite persone motivate da ben altri principi (l’arricchimento e la conservazione del potere a tutti i costi), cosa che, se si pensa al Direttorio e all’impero napoleonico (periodo che vide l’affermazione di moltissimi ex rivoluzionari, prontissimi a cambiare casacca) effettivamente avvenne.

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